Romeo and Juliet
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Romeo and Juliet
Set during five of the most intensely dramatic days ever portrayed, ROMEO AND JULIET was probably written in 1594 or 1595, and first published in a 1597 edition, as transcribed by actors who had performed it. Other editions appeared later, but even the more authoritative versions, such as that of 1599--probably drawn from Shakespeare's own manuscript copies--lack the detailed stage directions present in the actors' transcription; thus, modern editions incorporate several sources. ROMEO AND JULIET is among the most oft performed of Shakespeare's works, and it has been among the most beloved since its earliest days on the stage. Though the title page of the 1597 edition declares that ROMEO AND JULIET had been performed and enjoyed many times prior to its publication, the first extant direct record of the events of a production refer to a 1662 staging, in which the play was probably adapted or altered--adaption was particularly popular in the 17th century. One London stage ran different conclusions on alternative nights; audiences who went home glum on Friday could be uplifted by the play's ending if they returned on Saturday night. The story of ROMEO AND JULIET was derived by Shakespeare from many sources. The version most contemporary to his own was the 1562 poem The Tragicall History of Romeus and Iuliet by Arthur Brooke, which itself was an adaptation of a French piece by Pierre Boaistuau, which Boaistuau had adapted from the Italian. Indeed, aspects of the tragic story have recurred throughout Western literature since at least the third century. Shakespeare greatly intensified the pace by compressing a piece which had unfolded over the course of several months into the space of five days--a period in which much transpires at daybreak, including the famous balcony scene where Romeo declares, But soft, what light through yonder window breaks?/It is the east, and Juliet is the sun. Romeo is forced to approach Juliet in secret because of the impassioned rivalry bet...
Drama
Macbeth
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Macbeth
Shakespeare's dark portrait of ambition begins when the eponymous hero, a Scottish soldier, encounters three witches, who mysteriously refer to him as the future king. As, step by step, their prophecy begins to be fulfilled, the seeds of ambition are planted not only in Macbeth but in his scheming wife, who soon is plotting the murder of Duncan, King of Scotland. This murder--and the string of killings that inevitably follow--sets in motion a series of dark deeds that torment Macbeth and Lady Macbeth with guilt, which manifests itself most pointedly when a sleepwalking Lady Macbeth attempts to wash the blood from her hands, famously uttering Out, damn'd spot! MACBETH was probably written between 1603 and 1606; it is the last of Shakespeare's major tragedies and is peculiarly concise, perhaps because Shakespeare had learned of King James's penchant for shorter works. The plot was inspired by the Chronicles of Holinshed's narrative of the reigns of Duncan and Macbeth in Scotland. Richard Burbage, one of the most prominent actors of the Elizabethan stage, is said to have originated the title role.
Drama
A Midsummer Night's Dream
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A Midsummer Night's Dream
The play takes place at the summer solstice, Midsummer Eve, in Athens, where everyone is pining away for the wrong person--except Theseus, the Duke, and his fiancee, Hippolyta, whose wedding day is fast approaching. Hermia, the Duke's daughter, is intent on marrying Lysander, although her father disapproves and threatens to force her into a nunnery if she refuses to marry his choice, Demetrius. But Demetrius loves Helena, and Lysander and Hermia plan to elope despite the Duke's orders. Meanwhile, in a subplot, the rude mechanicals (or artisans) Quince, Snug, Flute, Snout, Starveling, and Bottom, are hilariously rehearsing the play PYRAMUS AND THISBE to be performed at the Duke's wedding. As Hermia and Lysander head into the Forest of Arden to elope, with Helena and Demetrius following, the amateur acting troupe likewise takes cover in the forest to rehearse in privacy. This leads all the players into the realm of magic, presided over by the King and Queen of the Fairies, Oberon and Titania. When Oberon decides to play a trick on Titania with the aid of the juice of a magic flower that causes people to fall in love with the first person (or beast) they set eyes on, the real trouble starts. The magic is used liberally on both the humans and the fairies by the trouble-making sprite Puck, inspiring many incongruous entanglements. Unlike the other plays, there is in this case no known source for Shakespeare's fantastic plot, though the structure is classical, beginning in the court, moving to an uncivilized environment, and then returning to the newly ordered world of the court. Aspects of the imagery are drawn from classic works, such as Apuleius's THE GOLDEN ASS and Ovid's METAMORPHOSES. From evidence in the play, like Titania's remark about three unusually unpleasant summers in a row--documented elsewhere in England's records--composition seems to date from 1595 or 1596, and scholarship suggests that it was first performed in honor of a court wedding, though precis...
Drama
King Henry IV
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King Henry IV
David Scott Kastan lucidly explores the remarkable richness and the ambitious design of King Henry IV Part 1 and shows how these complicate any easy sense of what kind of play it is.
Conventionally regarded as a history play, much of it is in fact conspicuously invented fiction, and Kastan argues that the non-historical, comic plot does not simply parody the historical action but by its existence raises questions about the very nature of history. The full and engaging introduction devotes extensive discussion to the play's language, indicating how its insistent economic vocabulary provides texture for the social concerns of the play and focuses attention on the central relationship between value and political authority.
Drama
King Henry IV
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King Henry IV
Picking up after the battle of Shrewsbury, where PART 1 left off, the play opens with a personification of Rumor advertising the victory of the rebels, led by Hotspur. However, Rumor, an unreliable source, has got it all wrong: Prince Hal was victorious against the rebels, having slain the principal adversaries, including Hotspur himself, the son of Earl of Northumberland. When he finally gets the story straight, Northumberland renews the rebellion with vigor, which causes great stress to King Henry, detrimentally affecting his health and hastening his death. Prince Hal must learn to fill his shoes with grace and honor. And what should he do about the uproarious Falstaff? In handling the trespasses of his bawdy friend, Hal learns to be
both just and merciful. Like part one, KING HENRY IV, PART 2 depicts life in court in contrast to life among the commoners of London.
Drama
Measure For Measure
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Measure For Measure
Written in 1604 when James I--a king particularly concerned with the religious aspects of his leadership--was fresh on the throne, MEASURE FOR MEASURE is a reflection of its time. In it, a sovereign's role in the legislation of morality is explored, as two extreme poles of government are navigated--the Duke's over-leniency as the play opens, and his deputy's rigid judgement that precipitates the tragicomedy. When the Duke realizes that his rule is too lax, he appoints his deputy Angelo to reinforce authority. However, forgiveness, a Christian virtue and therefore an implied virtue of the play's Christian government, is not a characteristic of Angelo, who, reviving an old morality law,
condemns Claudio to death for impregnating Juliet.
The dilemma of the drama is presented when Claudio's sister Isabella leaves the cloister of the convent to plead for Claudio's freedom. Scandalously, Angelo agrees to free Claudio if Isabella will sleep with him. An estranged wife, a bed trick, and a subplot concerning a pimp present further complications, but ultimately lighten the atmosphere to lead a tragic drama toward a comic resolution. Shakespeare drew on many sources that were themselves inspired by a real 16th-century event in which an Italian man who was condemned to death was promised freedom after his wife accepted a sexual proposition from the judge in exchange. The first records of performance point to December 26, 1604. The next documentation recalls a performance one hundred years later. Though records certainly get destroyed, such scant evidence indeed suggests poor public reception of the play. MEASURE FOR MEASURE was the last of Shakespeare's comedies, and intense tragic material surfaces in it that is fully developed in the plays to come, including OTHELLO, KING LEAR, and MACBETH.
Drama
